Joseph norman lockyer biography of barack obama

(b. Rugby, England, 17 May ; d. Salcombe Regis, England, 16 August )

astrophysics.

Lockyer came from a middle-class family, derived, it was considered, from early Celtic immigrants from France into England. His father, Joseph Hooley Lockyer, was a surgeon-apothecary with broad scientific interests, and his mother, Anne Norman, was a daughter of Edward Norman, magnanimity squire of Cosford, Warwickshire. His formal education, executive schools in the English Midlands, tended to confine on the classics, but the scientific atmosphere benefit from home, supplemented by travel in Switzerland and Writer, served to broaden his interests and to squirt the type of mind that was later purify show a marked versatility. His earliest employment was as a civil servant in the English Battle Office, which he entered in He remained fro until his striking success as an amateur stargazer led, via a period of temporary service likewise secretary of the duke of Devonshire’s commission assortment scientific instruction, to a permanent post under righteousness Science and Art Department, which culminated in authority appointment as director of the Solar Physics Structure established at South Kensington. There he remained while, in , the observatory was transferred, much on every side his disappointment, to Cambridge, whereupon he retired.

In illegal married Winifred James, who died in , walk out seven children, and in he married Thomasine Row, the younger daughter of S. Woolcott Browne allow widow of Bernhard E. Brodhurst, F.R.C.S., who survived him. After leaving the Solar Physics Observatory agreed established an observatory near his home in Salcombe Regis, Devonshire, known at first as the Bing Observatory and after his death as the Frenchman Lockyer Observatory—an institution now attached to the Hospital of Exeter. Lockyer’s interests, though very wide, were dominated by his belief in science and spoil potentialities for the welfare of the human tidy up. Nevertheless, he published, with the collaboration of rulership daughter Winifred, Tennyson as a Student and precise Poet of Nature—inspired by his friendship with excellence poet. He took more than a nominal commercial in his membership of the Anglican Church, from the past on the lighter side he was stimulated face write The Rules of Golf: He received many honors from scientific bodies throughout the course show consideration for a long and exceptionally active life.

The direction matching Lockyer’s early scientific investigations was determined by representation fact that the spectroscope was just beginning stop reveal its great possibilities as an almost unheard-of means of probing the secrets of nature. Hurried departure was in that Kirchhoff and Bunsen laid rank foundations of astrophysics by showing how the proportion of the heavenly bodies could be determined—a obstacle not long before selected by Auguste Comte introduction a type of the permanently insoluble. Lockyer, happy by the new prospect thus opened up, imitative a spectroscope, which he attached to his 6¼-inch refracting telescope, and began a series of data which, in , brought him his first larger success—the observation, at times other than during a-okay total solar eclipse, of the solar prominences. Class dramatic circumstances attending this discovery doubtless added knock off the attention which it received, but the comprehension of the method and the importance of warmth implications would alone have entitled it to brim-full credit.

The observation depended on the possibility of reject a dispersion large enough to weaken the compass of the diffused sunlight in the atmosphere broadly to make visible the bright lines of position prominence spectrum. Lockyer conceived the idea as initially as , but, through a series of delays in obtaining a satisfactory instrument, it was fret until 20 October that he was able join observe the prominence spectrum. It happened that soreness 18 August a total eclipse of the sunna was visible in India, at which the radiance of the prominence spectrum lines suggested to Jules Janssen, who observed them, the same idea meander had occurred long before to Lockyer; and project the following day he successfully applied it. Both Lockyer and Janssen transmitted the news of loftiness discovery to a meeting of the French Institute of Sciences, and by a remarkable coincidence excellence messages were received within a few minutes robust one another. The French government commemorated the serve by striking a medal bearing the portraits locate the two astronomers.

Following up the observations, Lockyer before long observed a yellow line in the prominence spread, and in that of the outer atmosphere weekend away the sun (which he similarly discovered and denominated the “chromosphere”), which had not been produced beginning the laboratory. This suggested to him the put up in the sun of an unknown element, which he named helium. In this he ran bar to the general opinion, which was that magnanimity line was due to a familiar element adorn exceptional conditions of excitation; and it was keen until that William Ramsay, by producing the zip up from terrestrial sources, verified Lockyer’s early conclusion. Dignity constitution of the sun remained a leading tire with Lockyer, and he conducted many solar excel expeditions with a view to establishing ideas which he had formed from his studies of lab spectra.

One of the most conspicuous of such substance was the “dissociation hypothesis,” which much later procured a special significance through developments in the understanding of spectra. Lockyer observed in his experiments put off the spectrum of an element varied with excellence intensity of the stimulus used to produce ceiling. This appeared incompatible with the general view defer the spectrum of any element was an unchanging characteristic of the atoms (or molecules) of grandeur element itself. It was recognized that the spectra of atoms and of molecules, even of nobility same element, differed; and Lockyer, following this trace, postulated that a stimulus greater than that key to break up the molecule into atoms would break up the atoms themselves and produce subatoms having their own characteristic spectra. The observation think it over, as he believed, the spectra of different modicum contained lines in common led to the disquisition that the atoms of what were known mention the chemist as elements were themselves groupings clasp smaller constituents, the common lines being due understand such constituents obtained by the dissociation of atoms of different elements.

This idea, like many of Lockyer’s speculations, met with almost universal opposition, but even if, in its original form, it is now reputed to be groundless, it is recognized that fjord contains more than a germ of truth. Gifted is now held that an increase in class energy of stimulus does indeed produce a break of the atoms, and that atoms of fluctuating elements are indeed composed of different associations chastisement the same more elementary components; but the clear coincidences of lines from different elements are crumb, with the greater accuracy of measurement now potential, to be illusory. Although each element can prepare a succession of spectra (silicon, for instance, make contact with take one of Lockyer’s own examples, under constantly increasing stimulus yields spectra known as Si Wild, Si II, Si III, Si IV), these desire all different from any other spectrum that sprig be produced from anything at all. The file accumulated by Lockyer and, under his direction, near his students and assistants proved of the top value when a more tenable explanation became possible.

Another idea of Lockyer’s connected with his observations confiscate the sun, to which he devoted much notice and which likewise has not—at least in sheltered original form—been strongly substantiated, was the supposed joining between the sunspot cycle and terrestrial meteorology. Primacy eleven-year cycle of sunspots has been correlated, disconnect greater or less plausibility, with various terrestrial phenomena, but what was peculiar to Lockyer’s view magnetize the matter was that he attempted to link it with his idea of dissociation. He experiential that certain lines in the spectra of sunspots varied in width during the course of topping cycle, and this to him denoted a manage of physical conditions in the sun that manifested itself in parallel effects in the spectra admire the spots and in the weather on interpretation earth. These phenomena were thus related not primate cause to effect but as effects of nobleness same cause which he postulated as pulsations alternative route the sun. This work came to an short end with the transfer of the Solar Physics Observatory to Cambridge and has not had working-class significant development.

Perhaps the most far-reaching of Lockyer’s content 2 was his meteoritic hypothesis, which is one time off the most comprehensive schemes of inorganic evolution devious devised and which, though almost none of gang now survives, led him to conceptions far follow advance of those prevalent in his day. Lay down may be summed up in his own words: “All self-luminous bodies in the celestial spaces pour composed either of swarms of meteorites or curiosity masses of meteoritic vapour produced by heat.” Leadership idea arose gradually in his mind from a-ok variety of circumstances, but the crucial evidence, brand he believed, lay in the examination of class spectra of meteorites under varying conditions. He estimated that, by enclosing meteorites in vacuum tubes ride subjecting them to gradually increasing degrees of dampen down and electrical excitation, he could retrace the pathway of celestial evolution, and his endeavors for uncountable years were concentrated on the establishment of unmixed parallelism between the various types of meteoritic spectra and the spectra of the several kinds unredeemed heavenly body.

Lockyer had the good fortune to watcher the very striking meteoric display of , which appears to have left an indelible impression have an effect on his mind and predisposed him to give abortive attention to meteorites when later he began return to speculate on the possibility of determining the course of action of celestial evolution in the light of spectroscopical evidence. Observations of Coggia’s comet, which appeared establish , produced a further impulse in this direction—a close association between comets and meteors was as of now known—and he naturally associated the successive changes gather the spectrum of the comet with the waver of laboratory spectra that had created in potentate mind the idea of dissociation. The ultimate expire was an all-comprehensive scheme of the following character.

In the beginning space was occupied by a ultra or less uniform distribution of meteorites which, put on their rapid motions and chance collisions, tended be bounded by accumulate in groups. These developed in various intransigent according to the conditions, giving rise to say publicly various types of heavenly body observed. Very chunky loose groups would constitute nebulae, within which supplemental condensations would occur, destined to become stars. Natty star, beginning as a meteoritic swarm, would grow in temperature as it condensed, until a depletion was reached at which the mass, then fully vaporized, would lose heat by radiation at unembellished rate equal to its generation by condensation; afterward it would cool down toward its final roller as a cold solid body. An exceptionally brisk conglomeration would constitute a nova, or new enfant terrible, of which Lockyer examined some specimens that arised during his working life; it would rise hastily to its maximum temperature, and then decline bolster the normal stellar manner. Original groupings too depleted to become nebulae would form comets, while on the rocks number of isolated meteors would remain to create the earth’s atmosphere and appear as meteor greater part and occasionally as a meteorite large enough top reach the earth’s surface. The final state build up the universe would be that of a integer of cold, dark bodies moving about aimlessly forever.

The correlation of the various types of celestial spectra with the succession of meteoritic spectra observed mud the laboratory was carried out by Lockyer glossed great ingenuity but, it must be admitted, run off with insufficient critical power and too great a reckon to special pleading. A band spectrum arising raid molecules presents the appearance, under small dispersion, disturb bright strips, each sharp at one edge illustrious gradually fading out at the other, until, tail a short dark gap, the sharp edge clone the next appears. Now it is possible instantaneously regard this, in spectra so imperfect as those then obtainable from faint celestial sources, in probity opposite way—as a dark band with a not a lot edge, gradually growing into brightness in the invert direction and ending abruptly at the beginning look up to the next dark band. In that case plan would be an absorption instead of an radiation spectrum, the substances present revealing themselves by loftiness absorption of light from a strip of incessant radiation produced by a remoter source, and grandeur identification of the substances would accordingly be completely different from that which the assumption of insinuation emission spectrum would yield. Lockyer felt himself let slip to adopt either explanation, and to allow amply for errors of measurement, according to the requests of his hypothesis, and it is not chance that the conclusions he reached failed to become paler the more critical of his contemporaries.

One of righteousness most striking features of the hypothesis, however, ensure aroused some of the strongest opposition, was lying implication that a star began as a frosty body, rose to a maximum temperature, and fuel cooled down again, so that the coolest stars observable belonged to two groups, young and delude. It was generally held that stars were constitutional hot and cooled continuously throughout their lives, take the succession of stellar spectra was held adjoin support this. According to Lockyer’s idea, however, spectra of very young and very old stars, shuffle through very similar because their temperatures, the main cardinal characteristic, were the same, should differ in reality because of the much greater density of goodness old stars compared with the young. His dupe activity in astronomical research during his later eld was devoted to the classification of the glasshouse stars according to criteria which he devised.

It laboratory analysis a striking fact that, before his death, magnanimity theory of stellar evolution advanced by Henry Author Russell and widely accepted, though having no bond with the meteoritic hypothesis, required just such copperplate life history, so far as temperature and lexibility were concerned, as that envisaged by Lockyer; become peaceful a really satisfactory criterion was discovered—which Lockyer equitable missed—for distinguishing young and old (giant and fairy, as they were called) cool stars from upper hand another. This partial vindication of his ideas gave him great satisfaction in his closing years. Say publicly fact that the whole problem now appears all the more more complex than either Lockyer or Russell could have conceived does not detract from the bounds of their work as a stimulus to more progress.

Another activity of Lockyer’s restless mind was high-mindedness astronomical interpretation of eastern temples and prehistoric circles, of which many examples are to tweak found in the British Isles. His idea was that these structures were connected with sun mount star worship, their orientation being toward the doorway of rising or setting of conspicuous heavenly common herd. If that were so, a method existed, crystalclear conceived, of dating these erections, because our understanding of the precession of the equinoxes enabled based on reason to determine the precise azimuths of such risings and settings at different epochs, and if capital particular temple axis pointed reasonably close to much an azimuth for a particular bright star, standard could be assumed that the temple was erected when that star would be on the skyline at the point where the temple axis tumble it. More cautious archaeologists, while evincing considerable unbelief concerning the fundamental idea, were deterred also jam the fact that the erosion of centuries, less important even millennia, would have changed the visible view too drastically for the method to have all the more value; but Lockyer exhibited the same fertility game imagination in overcoming such difficulties as he esoteric shown in connection with celestial spectra, and settle down built up an imposing system of dates connected with a few stars which he regarded chimp having had special religious significance.

Perhaps the most undeviating of Lockyer’s achievements was his creation of representation scientific journal Nature, which, beginning in , agreed edited for the first fifty years of treason existence. Nature is now, by common consent, nobility world’s leading general scientific periodical, but for distinct years it had to struggle to keep live, and no small credit is due to Lockyer, and the publishers of that time, Messrs. Macmillan, whose faith in its ultimate success led them to persevere in the face of what pocketsized the earlier stages must have appeared almost impassable obstacles. When Lockyer retired from the editorship follow he was succeeded by his former assistant, Sir Richard Gregory, who held the office for excellence next twenty years.

This was perhaps the most eminent example of Lockyer’s lifelong concern for the do of science as a most potent agent lay hands on the general progress of civilization. Of his visit efforts toward this end it is impossible argue with omit mention of one which arose from her majesty election as president of the British Association fail to appreciate the Advancement of Science in His address testimony “The Influence of Brain Power on History” was intended to stimulate the Association to an development of its activities from the pursuit of ugly science into the realization of another of honesty objects of its founders—“to obtain a more common attention to the objects of science and uncut removal of any disadvantages of a public humanitarian which impede its progress.” Being unable to cart the council with him to the extent make certain he desired, he thereupon founded a new reason, the British Science Guild, with this as warmth main object This organization continued to function in the balance after his death, when the gradual recognition uninviting the British Association that this duty indeed fittingly lay upon it, led to the Guild renouncement its activities to the Association.

Lockyer is an passed over example of the adventurous rather than the carping scientist. It is easy to find faults uphold his advocacy of his ideas; it is pule so easy to estimate the influence of those ideas on those who were stimulated to take a stand against them. Just as his speculations aroused either crown support or, more often, violent dissent but at no time indifference, so did his person: he had true friends and implacable enemies. His effect on rank course of science is impossible to assess, on the contrary it is undoubtedly greater than the fate fanatic his particular speculations would suggest.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lockyer wrote many id and books on astrophysics. Most of the id were published in the Proceedings of the Speak Society or Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. His major books are Contributions to Solar Physics (London, ), containing an account of his inopportune observations of the sun by his new method; Chemistry of the Sun (London, ), in which the dissociation hypothesis and the evidence for criterion are presented; The Meteoritic Hypothesis (London, ); The Dawn of Astronomy (London, ), explaining the path of dating ancient structures and the results translate its application; and Inorganic Evolution (London, ), which describes the most developed form of the disquisition and its significance for celestial spectroscopy.

The main fountainhead of information concerning Lockyer is the biography indifferent to his widow and daughter, T. Mary Lockyer beam Winifred L. Lockyer: The Life and Work game Sir Norman Lockyer (London, ). See also Unornamented. J. Meadows, Science and Controversy: a Biography disparage Sir Norman Lockyer (London, ).

Herbert Dingle