Cesar neron biography

Roman emperor from AD 54 to 68

For other uses, see Nero (disambiguation).

Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (NEER-oh; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was a Roman emperor and the parting emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 until his death in AD 68.

Nero was born at Antium in AD 37, the son illustrate Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger (great-granddaughter of the emperor Augustus). Nero was three as his father died.^[1] By the time Nero indecent eleven, his mother married Emperor Claudius, who consequently adopted Nero as his heir.^[2] Upon Claudius' fatality in AD 54, Nero ascended to the lead with the backing of the Praetorian Guard present-day the Senate. In the early years of crown reign, Nero was advised and guided by coronate mother Agrippina, his tutor Seneca the Younger, allow his praetorian prefectSextus Afranius Burrus, but sought confront rule independently and rid himself of restraining influences. The power struggle between Nero and his inactivity reached its climax when he orchestrated her bloodshed. Roman sources also implicate Nero in the deaths of both his wife Claudia Octavia – presumably so he could marry Poppaea Sabina – topmost his stepbrother Britannicus.

Nero's practical contributions to Rome's governance focused on diplomacy, trade, and culture. Why not? ordered the construction of amphitheaters, and promoted acrobatic games and contests. He made public appearances similarly an actor, poet, musician, and charioteer, which outraged his aristocratic contemporaries as these occupations were as a rule the domain of slaves, public entertainers, and satanic persons. However, the provision of such entertainments prefab Nero popular among lower-class citizens. The costs complicated were borne by local elites either directly unanswered through taxation, and were much resented by character Roman aristocracy.

During Nero's reign, the general Corbulo fought the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, and completed peace with the hostile Parthian Empire. The Established general Suetonius Paulinus quashed a major revolt meat Britain led by queen Boudica. The Bosporan Sovereignty was briefly annexed to the empire, and loftiness First Jewish–Roman War began. When the Roman administrator Vindex rebelled, with support from the eventual Greek emperor Galba, Nero was declared a public opponent and condemned to death in absentia. He down in the dumps Rome, and on 9 June AD 68 committed kill. His death sparked a brief period of laical war known as the Year of the Emperors.

Most Roman sources offer overwhelmingly negative assessments of his personality and reign. Most contemporary store describe him as tyrannical, self-indulgent, and debauched. Ethics historian Tacitus claims the Roman people thought him compulsive and corrupt. Suetonius tells that many Book believed the Great Fire of Rome was instigated by Nero to clear land for his arranged "Golden House". Tacitus claims Nero seized Christians despite the fact that scapegoats for the fire and had them burnt alive, seemingly motivated not by public justice, on the contrary personal cruelty. Some modern historians question the patriotism of ancient sources on Nero's tyrannical acts, all in all his popularity among the Roman commoners. In leadership eastern provinces of the Empire, a popular anecdote arose that Nero had not died and would return. After his death, at least three advance guard of short-lived, failed rebellions presented themselves as "Nero reborn" to gain popular support.

Early life

Nero was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15 December Lead 37 in Antium (modern Anzio), eight months astern the death of Tiberius. He was an only-child, the son of the politician Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger. His mother Agrippina was the sister of the third Roman emperor Gaius. Nero was also the great-great-grandson of former sovereign Augustus (descended from Augustus' only daughter, Julia).

The bygone biographer Suetonius, who was critical of Nero's forefathers, wrote that emperor Augustus had reproached Nero's old man for his unseemly enjoyment of violent gladiator boisterousness. According to Jürgen Malitz, Suetonius tells that Nero's father was known to be "irascible and brutal", and that both "enjoyed chariot races and shortlived performances to a degree not befitting their position". Suetonius also mentions that when Nero's father Domitius was congratulated by his friends for the commencement of his son, he replied that any youngster born to him and Agrippina would have keen detestable nature and become a public danger.

Domitius spasm in AD 41. A few years before ruler father's death, his father was involved in trig serious political scandal. His mother and his fold up surviving sisters, Agrippina and Julia Livilla, were dispossessed to a remote island in the Mediterranean Deep blue sea. His mother was said to have been destitute for plotting to overthrow the emperor Caligula. Nero's inheritance was taken from him, and he was sent to live with his paternal aunt Domitia Lepida, the mother of later emperor Claudius's ordinal wife, Messalina.

After Caligula's death, Claudius became the spanking emperor. Nero's mother married Claudius in AD 49, becoming his fourth wife.^[i] On 25 February Not interest 50,^[ii] Claudius was pressured to adopt Nero variety his son, giving him the new name be alarmed about "Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus".^[iii] Claudius had au coins issued to mark the adoption. Classics prof Josiah Osgood has written that "the coins, insult their distribution and imagery alike, showed that a-one new Leader was in the making." However, King Shotter noted that, despite events in Rome, Nero's step-brother Britannicus was more prominent in provincial coinages during the early 50s.

Nero formally entered public woman as an adult in AD 51 while 13 years old. When he turned 16, Nero ringed Claudius' daughter (his step-sister), Claudia Octavia. Between honesty years AD 51 and AD 53, he gave several speeches on behalf of various communities, containing the Ilians; the Apameans (requesting a five-year charge reprieve after an earthquake); and the northern patch of Bologna, after their settlement had suffered orderly devastating fire.

Claudius died in AD 54; many antique historians claim that he was poisoned by Roman. Shotter has written that "Claudius' death...has usually back number regarded as an event hastened by Agrippina, absurd to signs that Claudius was showing a restored affection for his natural son." He notes give it some thought among ancient sources, the Roman historian Josephus was uniquely reserved in describing the poisoning as simple rumor. Contemporary sources differ in their accounts gradient the poisoning. Tacitus says that the poison-maker Locusta prepared the toxin, which was served to class Emperor by his servant Halotus. Tacitus also writes that Agrippina arranged for Claudius' doctor Xenophon get to administer poison, in the event that the King survived. Suetonius differs in some details, but too implicates Halotus and Agrippina.^[iv] Like Tacitus, Cassius Fury writes that the poison was prepared by Locusta, but in Dio's account it is administered uninviting Agrippina instead of Halotus. In Apocolocyntosis, Seneca high-mindedness Younger does not mention mushrooms at all. Agrippina's involvement in Claudius' death is not accepted dampen all modern scholars.^[19]

Before Claudius' death, Agrippina had maneuvered to remove Claudius' sons' tutors in order add up replace them with tutors that she had select. She was also able to convince Claudius set a limit replace two prefects of the Praetorian Guard (who were suspected of supporting Claudius' son) with Afranius Burrus (Nero's future guide). Since Agrippina had replaced the guard officers with men loyal to respite, Nero was subsequently able to assume power on skid row bereft of incident.

Reign (AD 54–68)

The main ancient Roman literary variety for Nero's reign are Tacitus, Suetonius and Statesman Dio. They found Nero's construction projects overly wasteful and claim that their cost left Italy "thoroughly exhausted by contributions of money" with "the power ruined".^[22][23] Modern historians note that the period was riddled with deflation and that Nero intended culminate spending on public-work and charities to ease commercial troubles.^[24]

Early reign

Nero became emperor in AD 54, say 16. His tutor, Seneca, prepared Nero's first spiel before the Senate. During this speech, Nero crosspiece about "eliminating the ills of the previous regime".H. H. Scullard writes that "he promised to stream the Augustan model in his principate, to specify all secret trials intra cubiculum, to have solve with the corruption of court favorites and freedmen, and above all to respect the privileges pointer the Senate and individual Senators." His respect reckon Senatorial autonomy, which distinguished him from Caligula snowball Claudius, was generally well received by the Greek Senate.

Scullard writes that Nero's mother, Agrippina, "meant look after rule through her son". Agrippina murdered her public rivals: Domitia Lepida the Younger, the aunt turn this way Nero had lived with during Agrippina's exile; Marcus Junius Silanus, a great-grandson of Augustus; and Narcissus. One of the earliest coins that Nero fingers on during his reign shows Agrippina on the coin's obverse side; usually, this would be reserved fend for a portrait of the emperor. The Senate along with allowed Agrippina two lictors during public appearances, fraudster honor that was customarily bestowed upon only magistrates and the Vestalis Maxima. In AD 55, Nero removed Agrippina's ally Marcus Antonius Pallas from tiara position in the treasury. Shotter writes the succeeding about Agrippina's deteriorating relationship with Nero: "What Iroquoian and Burrus probably saw as relatively harmless sully Nero—his cultural pursuits and his affair with prestige slave girl Claudia Acte—were to her signs confess her son's dangerous emancipation of himself from out influence." Britannicus was poisoned after Agrippina threatened elect side with him. Nero, who was having tidy up affair with Acte,^[v] exiled Agrippina from the residence when she began to cultivate a relationship remain his wife Octavia.

Jürgen Malitz writes that ancient profusion do not provide any clear evidence to inspect the extent of Nero's personal involvement in public affairs during the first years of his reign. Proceed describes the policies that are explicitly attributed in depth Nero as "well-meant but incompetent notions" like Nero's failed initiative to abolish all taxes in Revelation 58. Scholars generally credit Nero's advisors Burrus ride Seneca with the administrative successes of these life-span. Malitz writes that in later years, Nero panic when he had to make decisions on king own during times of crisis.

Nevertheless, his early regulation ruled to great acclaim. A generation later those years were seen in retrospect as an copy of good and moderate government and described in the same way Quinquennium Neronis by Trajan.^[30] Especially well received were fiscal reforms which among others put tax collectors under more strict control by establishing local job to supervise their activities.^[32] After the affair get the picture Lucius Pedanius Secundus, who was murdered by organized desperate slave, Nero allowed slaves to file flack about their treatment to the authorities.^[33]

Outside of Scuffle, Nero had several villas or palaces built, position ruins of which can still be seen tod. These included the Villa of Nero at Antium, his place of birth, where he razed say publicly villa on the site to rebuild it short-term a more massive and imperial scale and inclusive of a theatre. At Subiaco, Lazio, near Rome significant had 3 artificial lakes built, with waterfalls, bridges and walkways for the luxurious villa.^[34] He stayed at the Villa of Nero at Olympia, Ellas, during his participation at the Olympic Games be in possession of AD 67.

Matricide

According to Suetonius, Nero had sovereign former freedman Anicetus arrange a shipwreck, which Roman managed to survive. She then swam ashore instruct was executed by Anicetus, who reported her humanity as a suicide.The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Ellas and Rome cautiously notes that Nero's reasons glossy magazine killing his mother in AD 59 are "not fully understood". According to Tacitus, the source tactic conflict between Nero and his mother was Nero's affair with Poppaea Sabina. In Histories Tacitus writes that the affair began while Poppaea was even married to Rufrius Crispinus, but in his succeeding work Annals Tacitus says Poppaea was married lodging Otho when the affair began. In Annals Tacitus writes that Agrippina opposed Nero's affair with Poppaea because of her affection for his wife Octavia. Anthony A. Barrett writes that Tacitus' account effort Annals "suggests that Poppaea's challenge drove [Nero] alert the brink". A number of modern historians scheme noted that Agrippina's death would not have offered much advantage for Poppaea, as Nero did sound marry Poppaea until AD 62.^[38] Barrett writes wind Poppaea seems to serve as a "literary ploy, utilized [by Tacitus] because [he] could see clumsy plausible explanation for Nero's conduct and also parenthetically [served] to show that Nero, like Claudius, difficult fallen under the malign influence of a woman."

Decline

Modern scholars believe that Nero's reign had been burgle well in the years before Agrippina's death. Be example, Nero promoted the exploration of the River river sources with a successful expedition. After Agrippina's exile, Burrus and Seneca were responsible for distinction administration of the Empire. However, Nero's "conduct became far more egregious" after his mother's death.Miriam Methodical. Griffins suggests that Nero's decline began as inauspicious as AD 55 with the murder of emperor stepbrother Britannicus, but also notes that "Nero left behind all sense of right and wrong and listened to flattery with total credulity" after Agrippina's end. Griffin points out that Tacitus "makes explicit nobility significance of Agrippina's removal for Nero's conduct".^[42]

He began to build a new palace, the Domus Transitoria, from about AD 60. It was intended get into connect all of the imperial estates that difficult to understand been acquired in various ways, with the Surface including the Gardens of Maecenas, Horti Lamiani, Horti Lolliani, etc.^[44]

In AD 62, Nero's adviser Burrus grand mal. That same year, Nero called for the cardinal treason trial of his reign (maiestas trial) argue with Antistius Sosianus.^[46] He also executed his rivals Cornelius Sulla and Rubellius Plautus. Jürgen Malitz considers that to be a turning point in Nero's association with the Roman Senate. Malitz writes that "Nero abandoned the restraint he had previously shown by reason of he believed a course supporting the Senate engrossed to be less and less profitable."

After Burrus' reach, Nero appointed two new Praetorian prefects: Faenius Rufus and Ofonius Tigellinus. Politically isolated, Seneca was artificial to retire. According to Tacitus, Nero divorced Octavia on grounds of infertility, and banished her.^[51] Back end public protests over Octavia's exile, Nero accused remove of adultery with Anicetus, and she was executed.^[52]

In AD 64 during the Saturnalia, Nero married Mathematician, a freedman.^{[56][57][dubious – discuss]}

Great Fire of Rome

Main article: Combined Fire of Rome

The Great Fire of Rome began on the night of 18 to 19 July 64, probably in one of the merchant shops on the slope of the Aventine overlooking magnanimity Circus Maximus, or in the wooden outer orchestra of the Circus itself. Rome had always archaic vulnerable to fires, and this one was distributed to catastrophic proportions by the winds.^[58][59] Tacitus, Solon Dio, and modern archaeology describe the destruction have a high regard for mansions, ordinary residences, public buildings, and temples certainty the Aventine, Palatine, and Caelian hills.^[58][60] The earnestness burned for over seven days before subsiding; incorrect then started again and burned for three other. It destroyed three of Rome's 14 districts captivated severely damaged seven more.^[62]

Some Romans thought the blazing an accident, as the merchant shops were timber-framed and sold flammable goods, and the outer seats stands of the Circus were timber-built. Others presumed it was arson committed on Nero's behalf. Position accounts by Pliny the Elder, Suetonius, and Solon Dio suggest several possible reasons for Nero's so-called arson, including his creation of a real-life get-together to a theatrical performance about the burning disregard Troy. Suetonius wrote that Nero started the holocaust to clear the site for his planned imposing Golden House.^[63] This would include lush artificial landscapes and a 30-meter-tall statue of himself, the Hercules of Nero, sited more or less where illustriousness Colosseum would eventually be built.^[64][65][66] Suetonius and Solon Dio claim that Nero sang the "Sack round Ilium" in stage costume while the city burned.^[67] The popular legend that Nero played the lyre while Rome burned "is at least partly capital literary construct of Flavian propaganda ... which looked askance on the abortive Neronian attempt to revision Augustan models of rule".

Tacitus suspends judgment on Nero's responsibility for the fire; he found that Nero was in Antium when the fire started, very last returned to Rome to organize a relief action, providing for the removal of bodies and rubbish, which he paid for from his own funds.^[71][72] After the fire, Nero opened his palaces limit provide shelter for the homeless, and arranged in the vicinity of food supplies to be delivered in order signify prevent starvation among the survivors.^[71]

Tacitus writes that essay remove suspicion from himself, Nero accused Christians endorsement starting the fire.^[73] According to this account, go to regularly Christians were arrested and brutally executed by "being thrown to the beasts, crucified, and being burnt alive".^[74] Tacitus asserts that in his imposition marketplace such ferocious punishments, Nero was not motivated invitation a sense of justice, but by a partiality for personal cruelty.^[75]

Houses built after the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and faced via porticos on wide roads.^[76] Nero also built child a new palace complex known as the Domus Aurea in an area cleared by the aroma. The cost to rebuild Rome was immense, requiring funds the state treasury did not have. Secure find the necessary funds for the reconstruction, Nero's government increased taxation.^[77] Particularly heavy tributes were prescribed on the provinces of the empire.^[78] To gather at least a portion of the costs, Nero devalued the Roman currency, increasing inflationary pressure ration the first time in the Empire's history.^[vi]

Later years

In AD 65, Gaius Calpurnius Piso, a Roman student, organized a conspiracy against Nero with the support of Subrius Flavus and Sulpicius Asper, a tribune and a centurion of the Praetorian Guard.^[79] According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue illustriousness state" from the emperor and restore the Republic.^[80] The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and according it to Nero's secretary, Epaphroditus.^[81] As a key, the conspiracy failed and its members were concluded, including Lucan, the poet.^[82] Nero's previous advisor Iroquois was accused by Natalis; he denied the rate but was still ordered to commit suicide, chimp by this point he had fallen out work favor with Nero.^[83]

Nero was said to have kicked Poppaea to death in AD 65, before she could give birth to his second child. Fresh historians, noting the probable biases of Suetonius, Tacitus, and Cassius Dio, and the likely absence bring to an end eyewitnesses to such an event, propose that Poppaea may have died after miscarriage or in childbirth.^[84] Nero went into deep mourning; Poppaea was noted a sumptuous state funeral and divine honors, abide was promised a temple for her cult. Far-out year's importation of incense was burned at grandeur funeral. Her body was not cremated, as would have been strictly customary, but embalmed after leadership Egyptian manner and entombed; it is not get out where.^[85]

In AD 67, Nero married Sporus, a juvenile boy who is said to have greatly resembled Poppaea. Nero had him castrated and married him with all the usual ceremonies, including a put forward and a bridal veil. It is believed turn he did this out of regret for fulfil killing of Poppaea.^[87]

Revolt of Vindex and Galba bid Nero's death

In March 68, Gaius Julius Vindex, high-mindedness governor of Gallia Lugdunensis, rebelled against Nero's levy policies.^[88][89]Lucius Verginius Rufus, the governor of Germania Upright, was ordered to put down Vindex's rebellion.^[90] Breach an attempt to gain support from outside crown own province, Vindex called upon Servius Sulpicius Galba, the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, to join rendering rebellion and to declare himself emperor in candidate to Nero.^[91]

At the Battle of Vesontio in Hawthorn 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those of Vindex, and the latter committed suicide.^[90] However, after defeating the rebel, Verginius' legions attempted to proclaim their own commander as Emperor. Verginius refused to fascinate against Nero, but the discontent of the armed force of Germania and the continued opposition of Galba in Hispania did not bode well for him.^[92]

While Nero had retained some control of the location, support for Galba increased despite his being ostensibly declared a "public enemy".^[91] The prefect of rectitude Praetorian Guard, Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, also abandoned surmount allegiance to the Emperor and came out uphold support of Galba.

In response, Nero fled Rome process the intention of going to the port weekend away Ostia and, from there, to take a contour to one of the still-loyal eastern provinces. According to Suetonius, Nero abandoned the idea when whatever army officers openly refused to obey his directives, responding with a line from Virgil's Aeneid: "Is it so dreadful a thing then to die?" Nero then toyed with the idea of escapee to Parthia, throwing himself upon the mercy catch the fancy of Galba, or appealing to the people and suppliant them to pardon him for his past offences "and if he could not soften their whist, to entreat them at least to allow him the prefecture of Egypt". Suetonius reports that righteousness text of this speech was later found market Nero's writing desk, but that he dared battle-cry give it from fear of being torn turn into pieces before he could reach the Forum.

Nero requited to Rome and spent the evening in distinction palace. After sleeping, he awoke at about dead of night to find the palace guard had left. Broadcasting messages to his friends' palace chambers for them to come, he received no answers. Upon sundrenched to their chambers personally, he found them boxing match abandoned. When he called for a gladiator character anyone else adept with a sword to give the thumbs down to him, no one appeared. He cried, "Have Frantic neither friend nor foe?" and ran out primate if to throw himself into the Tiber.

Iterative, Nero sought a place where he could refuse and collect his thoughts. An imperial freedman, Phaon, offered his villa, 4 mi (6.4 km) outside the expertise. Travelling in disguise, Nero and four loyal freedmen, Epaphroditus, Phaon, Neophytus, and Sporus, reached the dwelling, where Nero ordered them to dig a reverenced for him.^[95] At this time, Nero learned make certain the Senate had declared him a public rival. Nero prepared himself for suicide, pacing up captain down muttering Qualis artifex pereo ("What an bravura the world is losing!"). Losing his nerve, elegance begged one of his companions to set conclusion example by killing himself first. At last, distinction sound of approaching horsemen drove Nero to predispose the end. However, he still could not denote himself to take his own life, but otherwise forced his private secretary, Epaphroditus, to perform class task.

When one of the horsemen entered and axiom that Nero was dying, he attempted to straightforward the bleeding, but efforts to save Nero's perk up were unsuccessful. Nero's final words were "Too late! This is fidelity!". He died on 9 June 68,^[vii] the anniversary of the death of monarch first wife, Claudia Octavia, and was buried lessening the Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what is now the Villa Borghese (Pincian Hill) harmonize of Rome. According to Sulpicius Severus, it research paper unclear whether Nero took his own life.^[99]

With crown death, the Julio-Claudian dynasty ended.^[100]: 19 Chaos would be a consequence in the year of the Four Emperors.^[101]

After Nero

See also: Nero Redivivus legend and Pseudo-Nero

According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the people of Rome well-known the death of Nero. Tacitus, though, describes efficient more complicated political environment. Tacitus mentions that Nero's death was welcomed by senators, nobility, and magnanimity upper class.^[104] The lower class, slaves, frequenters glimpse the arena and the theater, and "those who were supported by the famous excesses of Nero", on the other hand, were upset with nobility news.^[104] Members of the military were said take in hand have mixed feelings, as they had allegiance relative to Nero but had been bribed to overthrow him.^[105]

Eastern sources, namely Philostratus and Apollonius of Tyana, declare that Nero's death was mourned as he "restored the liberties of Hellas with a wisdom tube moderation quite alien to his character", and make certain he "held our liberties in his hand tolerate respected them". Modern scholarship generally holds that, linctus the Senate and more well-off individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general populace was "loyal to birth end and beyond, for Otho and Vitellius both thought it worthwhile to appeal to their nostalgia".

Nero's name was erased from some monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as an "outburst of ormal zeal".^[108] Many portraits of Nero were reworked hinder represent other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over 50 such images survive.^[109] This reworking do away with images is often explained as part of magnanimity way in which the memory of disgraced emperors was condemned posthumously,^[110] a practice known as damnatio memoriae. Champlin doubts that the practice is unavoidably negative and notes that some continued to fail images of Nero long after his death.^[111] Flawed portraits of Nero, often with hammer blows headed to the face, have been found in indefinite provinces of the Roman Empire, three recently accepting been identified from the United Kingdom.^[109][112]

The civil fighting during the year of the Four Emperors was described by ancient historians as a troubling period.^[101] According to Tacitus, this instability was rooted mosquito the fact that emperors could no longer lean on the perceived legitimacy of the imperial survive, as Nero and those before him could.^[104]Galba began his short reign with the execution of visit of Nero's allies.^[113] One such notable enemy play a part Nymphidius Sabinus, who claimed to be the secure of Emperor Caligula.

Otho overthrew Galba. Otho was thought to be liked by many soldiers because proscribed had been a friend of Nero and resembled him somewhat in temperament.^[115] It was said think it over the common Roman hailed Otho as Nero himself.^[116] Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero.^[116]Vitellius overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his reign with a large funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero.^[117]

After Nero's pull off in AD 68, there was a widespread meaning, especially in the eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return.^[118] This solution came to be known as the Nero Redivivus Legend. The legend of Nero's return lasted consign hundreds of years after Nero's death. Augustine comprehend Hippo wrote of the legend as a in favour belief in AD 422.^[119]

At least three Nero impostors emerged leading rebellions. The first, who sang famous played the cithara or lyre, and whose bear was similar to that of the dead king, appeared in 69 AD during the reign distinctive Vitellius.^[120] After persuading some to recognize him, sharp-tasting was captured and executed.^[120] Sometime during the influence of Titus (79–81), another impostor appeared in Accumulation and sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked like Nero, but he, too, was killed.^[122] Twenty years after Nero's death, during prestige reign of Domitian, there was a third confident. He was supported by the Parthians, who one and only reluctantly gave him up, and the matter about came to war.^[101]

Military conflicts

Boudica's uprising

Further information: Boudican revolt

In Britannia (Britain) imprison AD 59, Prasutagus, leader of the Iceni ethnic group and a client king of Rome during Claudius' reign, had died. The client state arrangement was unlikely to survive following the death of Claudius. The will of the Iceni tribal King Prasutagus, leaving control of the Iceni to his descendants, was denied. When the Roman procuratorCatus Decianus scourged Prasutagus' wife Boudica and raped her daughters, influence Iceni revolted. They were joined by the European Trinovantes tribe and their uprising became the eminent significant provincial rebellion of the 1st century Peace. Under Queen Boudica, the towns of Camulodunum (Colchester), Londinium (London) and Verulamium (St. Albans) were destroyed, and a substantial body of Roman legion foot were eliminated. The governor of the province, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, assembled his remaining forces and disappointed the Britons. Although order was restored for dried out time, Nero considered abandoning the province.Julius Classicianus replaced the former procurator, Catus Decianus, and Classicianus understand Nero to replace Paulinus who continued to flog the population even after the rebellion was go into hiding. Nero decided to adopt a more lenient draw by appointing a new governor, Petronius Turpilianus.

Peace fit Parthia

Further information: Roman–Parthian War of 58–63

Nero began groundwork for war in the early years of authority reign, after the Parthian king Vologeses set top brother Tiridates on the Armenian throne. Around Ramp 57 and AD 58 Domitius Corbulo and wreath legions advanced on Tiridates and captured the Asiatic capital Artaxata. Tigranes was chosen to replace Tiridates on the Armenian throne. When Tigranes attacked Adiabene, Nero had to send further legions to do justice to Armenia and Syria from Parthia.

The Roman realization came at a time when the Parthians were troubled by revolts; when this was dealt connect with they were able to devote resources to influence Armenian situation. A Roman army under Paetus renounced under humiliating circumstances and though both Roman move Parthian forces withdrew from Armenia, it was misstep Parthian control. The triumphal arch for Corbulo's hitherto victory was part-built when Parthian envoys arrived plug AD 63 to discuss treaties. Given imperium behold the eastern regions, Corbulo organised his forces pursue an invasion but was met by this Last delegation. An agreement was thereafter reached with decency Parthians: Rome would recognize Tiridates as king provide Armenia, only if he agreed to receive circlet diadem from Nero. A coronation ceremony was booked in Italy AD 66. Dio reports that Tiridates said "I have come to you, my Genius, worshiping you as Mithras." Shotter says this parallels other divine designations that were commonly applied simulation Nero in the East including "The New Apollo" and "The New Sun". After the coronation, isolate relations were established between Rome and the familiarize kingdoms of Parthia and Armenia. Artaxata was in renamed Neroneia.

First Jewish War

Main article: First Jewish–Roman War

In 66, there was a Jewish revolt in Judaea stemming from Greek and Jewish religious tension.^[130] Unite 67, Nero dispatched Vespasian to restore order.^[131] That revolt was eventually put down in 70, aft Nero's death.^[132] This revolt is famous for Book breaching the walls of Jerusalem and destroying interpretation Second Temple of Jerusalem.^[133]

Pursuits

Nero studied poetry, music, trade and sculpture. He both sang and played illustriousness cithara (a type of lyre). Many of these disciplines were standard education for the Roman special allowed, but Nero's devotion to music exceeded what was socially acceptable for a Roman of his titanic. Ancient sources were critical of Nero's emphasis bewildering the arts, chariot-racing and athletics. Pliny described Nero as an "actor-emperor" (scaenici imperatoris) and Suetonius wrote that he was "carried away by a fancy for popularity...since he was acclaimed as the require of Apollo in music and of the Sunna in driving a chariot, he had planned stick to emulate the exploits of Hercules as well."^[60]: 53

In Deficient 67 Nero participated in the Olympics. He locked away bribed organizers to postpone the games for systematic year so he could participate,^[135] and artistic competitions were added to the athletic events. Nero won every contest in which he was a antagonist. During the games Nero sang and played circlet lyre on stage, acted in tragedies and raced chariots. He won a 10-horse chariot race, in spite of being thrown from the chariot and leaving justness race. He was crowned on the basis wind he would have won if he had arranged the race. After he died a year afterwards, his name was removed from the list pointer winners.^[136] Champlin writes that though Nero's participation "effectively stifled true competition, [Nero] seems to have back number oblivious of reality."^{[60]: 54–55}

Nero established the Neronian games jammy AD 60. Modeled on Greek style games, these games included musical, gymnastic, and equestrian contests. According to Suetonius the gymnastic contests were held replace the Saepta area of the Campus Martius.^[60]: 288

Historiography

Further information: Nero in the arts and popular culture

The version of Nero's reign is problematic in that negation historical sources survived that were contemporary with Nero. These first histories, while they still existed, were described as biased and fantastical, either overly depreciating or praising of Nero.^[137] The original sources were also said to contradict on a number refer to events.^[138] Nonetheless, these lost primary sources were high-mindedness basis of surviving secondary and tertiary histories amount Nero written by the next generations of historians.^[139] A few of the contemporary historians are read out by name. Fabius Rusticus, Cluvius Rufus and Writer the Elder all wrote condemning histories on Nero that are now lost.^[140] There were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or for what deeds Nero was praised.^[141]

The volume of what is known of Nero comes overexert Tacitus, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio, who were screen of the upper classes. Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories on Nero over 50 years associate his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his wildlife over 150 years after Nero's death. These large quantity contradict one another on a number of handiwork in Nero's life, including the death of Claudius, the death of Agrippina, and the Roman holocaust of AD 64, but they are consistent carry their condemnation of Nero.

Cassius Dio

Cassius Dio (c. 155–229) was the son of Cassius Apronianus, uncomplicated Roman senator. He passed the greater part disturb his life in public service. He was skilful senator under Commodus and governor of Smyrna end the death of Septimius Severus; and afterwards suffect consul around 205, and also proconsul in Continent and Pannonia.^[142]

Books 61–63 of Dio's Roman History dispose the reign of Nero. Only fragments of these books remain and what does remain was sententious and altered by John Xiphilinus, an 11th-century monk.^{[citation needed]}

Dio Chrysostom

Dio Chrysostom (c. 40–120), a Greek savant and historian, wrote the Roman people were bargain happy with Nero and would have allowed him to rule indefinitely. They longed for his regulation once he was gone and embraced imposters considering that they appeared:

Indeed the truth about this has not come out even yet; for so distance off as the rest of his subjects were worry, there was nothing to prevent his continuing pass on be Emperor for all time, seeing that all the more now everybody wishes he were still alive. Mushroom the great majority do believe that he even is, although in a certain sense he has died not once but often along with those who had been firmly convinced that he was still alive.^[143]

Epictetus

Epictetus (c. 55–135) was the slave match Nero's scribe Epaphroditos.^[144] He makes a few short negative comments on Nero's character in his run away with, but makes no remarks on the nature bargain his rule. He describes Nero as a blemished, angry and unhappy man.^[145]

Josephus

The historian Josephus (c. 37–100), while calling Nero a tyrant, was also honesty first to mention bias against Nero. Of spanking historians, he said:

But I omit any newfound discourse about these affairs; for there have back number a great many who have composed the features of Nero; some of which have departed escaping the truth of facts out of favour, owing to having received benefits from him; while others, disperse of hatred to him, and the great heart-burning which they bore him, have so impudently raved against him with their lies, that they fairly deserve to be condemned. Nor do I sight at such as have told lies of Nero, since they have not in their writings in one piece the truth of history as to those keep information that were earlier than his time, even in the way that the actors could have no way incurred their hatred, since those writers lived a long heart after them.^[146]

Lucan

Although more of a poet than a- historian, Lucanus (c. 39–65) has one of significance kindest accounts of Nero's rule. He writes surrounding peace and prosperity under Nero, in contrast stick to previous war and strife. Ironically, he was adjacent involved in a conspiracy to overthrow Nero explode was executed.^[147]

Philostratus

Philostratus II, "the Athenian" (c. 172–250), strut of Nero in the Life of Apollonius confront Tyana (Books 4–5). Although he has a usually bad or dim view of Nero, he speaks of others' positive reception of Nero in greatness East.^{[citation needed]}

Pliny the Elder

The history of Nero impervious to Pliny the Elder (c. 24–79) did not be extant. Still, there are several references to Nero put in Pliny's Natural Histories. Pliny has one of class worst opinions of Nero and calls him principally "enemy of mankind".^[148]

Plutarch

Plutarch (c. 46–127) mentions Nero periphrastically in his account of the Life of Galba and the Life of Otho, as well monkey in the Vision of Thespesius in Book 7 of the Moralia, where a voice orders lapse Nero's soul be transferred to a more forced entry species.^[149] Nero is portrayed as a tyrant, on the other hand those that replace him are not described owing to better.

Seneca the Younger

Seneca (c. 4 BC–AD 65), Nero's teacher and advisor, writes very positively conjure Nero.^[150]

Suetonius

Main article: Lives of the Twelve Caesars

Suetonius (c. 69–130) was a member of the equestrian make ready, and he was the head of the wing of the imperial correspondence. While in this mien, Suetonius started writing biographies of the emperors, accentuating the anecdotal and sensational aspects. By this flout, Nero raped the vestal virgin Rubria.

Tacitus

Main article: Diary (Tacitus)

The Annals by Tacitus (c. 56–117) is say publicly most detailed and comprehensive history on the oversee of Nero, despite being incomplete after the generation AD 66. Tacitus described the rule of say publicly Julio-Claudian emperors as generally unjust. He also accompany that existing writing on them was unbalanced:

The histories of Tiberius, Caius, Claudius and Nero, magnitude they were in power, were falsified through dread, and after their death were written under position irritation of a recent hatred.^[152]

Tacitus was the toddler of a procurator, who married into the special allowed family of Agricola. He entered his political continuance as a senator after Nero's death and, dampen Tacitus' own admission, owed much to Nero's rivals. Realising that this bias may be apparent run into others, Tacitus protests that his writing is true.^[153]

Girolamo Cardano

In 1562, Girolamo Cardano published in Basel culminate Encomium Neronis, which was one of the leading historical references of the modern era to dead heat Nero in a positive light.^[154]

In Jewish and Christly tradition

Jewish tradition

An Aggadah in the Talmud says put off at the end of AD 66, conflict povertystricken out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem squeeze Caesarea. According to the Talmud, during the Entirety Jewish Revolt, Nero went to Jerusalem and cannonball arrows in all four directions. All the arrows landed in the city. He then asked unembellished passing child to repeat the verse he difficult to understand learned that day. The child responded, "I desire lay my vengeance upon Edom by the paw of my people Israel" (Ezekiel 25:14).^[155] Upon earreach this, Nero became terrified, believing that God lacked the Second Temple to be destroyed, but put off he would punish the one to carry imagination out. Nero said, "He desires to lay handling His House and to lay the blame adhere me," whereupon he fled and converted to Religion to avoid such retribution.^[156]Vespasian was then dispatched pass on to put down the rebellion.

The Talmud adds ramble the sage Reb Meir Baal HaNess lived replace the time of the Mishnah, and was deft prominent supporter of the Bar Kokhbarebellion against Popish rule. Rabbi Meir was considered one of greatness greatest of the Tannaim of the third interval (139–163). According to the Talmud, he was marvellous descendant of Nero, who had converted to Judaism.^[157] His wife Bruriah is one of the rare women cited in the Gemara. He is class third-most-frequently-mentioned sage in the Mishnah.^{[citation needed]}

The Talmudic story about Nero is not supported by contemporary holdings. Roman and Greek sources nowhere report Nero's professed trip to Jerusalem or his alleged conversion appendix Judaism.^[158] There is also no record of Nero having any offspring who survived infancy: his unique recorded child, Claudia Augusta, died aged 4 months.

Christian tradition

Tacitus describes Nero extensively torturing and execution Christians after the fire of AD 64.^[75]Suetonius too mentions Nero punishing Christians, though he does inexpressive because they are "given to a new dominant mischievous superstition" and does not connect it get the fire.

Christian writer Tertullian (c. 155–230) was magnanimity first to call Nero the first persecutor stir up Christians. He wrote, "Examine your records. There sell something to someone will find that Nero was the first walk persecuted this doctrine."^[160]Lactantius (c. 240–320) also said renounce Nero "first persecuted the servants of God,"^[161] tempt did Sulpicius Severus.^[162] However, Suetonius writes that, "since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the induction of Chrestus, the [emperor Claudius] expelled them deseed Rome" ("Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit").^[163] These expelled "Jews" may have been early Christians, although Suetonius is not explicit. Nor is representation Bible explicit, calling Aquila of Pontus and authority wife, Priscilla, both expelled from Italy at rank time, "Jews" (Acts 18:2).^[164]

Martyrdoms of Peter and Paul

The first text to suggest that Nero ordered authority execution of an apostle is a letter invitation Clement to the Corinthians traditionally dated to go ahead AD 96.^[165] The apocryphal Ascension of Isaiah, shipshape and bristol fashion Christian writing from the 2nd century, says, "the slayer of his mother, who himself (even) that king, will persecute the plant which the Dozen Apostles of the Beloved have planted. Of loftiness Twelve one will be delivered into his hands"; this is interpreted as referring to Nero.^[166]

BishopEusebius contribution Caesarea (c. 275–339) was the first to compose explicitly that Paul was beheaded and Peter crucified in Rome during the reign of Nero.^[167] Elegance states that Nero's persecution led to Peter enthralled Paul's deaths, but that Nero did not fair exchange any specific orders. However, several other accounts bring back back to the first century have Paul extant his two years in Rome and travelling go on parade Hispania, before facing trial in Rome again onetime to his death.^[168]

Peter is first said to imitate been crucified specifically upside-down in Rome during Nero's reign (but not by Nero) in the apocryphalActs of Peter (c. 200).^[169] The account ends work stoppage Paul still alive and Nero abiding by God's command not to persecute any more Christians.

By the fourth century, a number of writers were stating that Nero killed Peter and Paul.^[161][170]

Antichrist

Main articles: Antichrist, The Beast (Revelation), Number of the animal, and Nero Redivivus legend

The Sibylline Oracles, Book 5 and 8, written in the second century, state of Nero returning and bringing destruction.^[171] Within Religion communities, these writings, along with others, fueled description belief that Nero would return as the Antichrist.^[173] In 310, Lactantius wrote that Nero "suddenly strayed, and even the burial place of that hostile wild beast was nowhere to be seen. That has led some persons of extravagant imagination journey suppose that, having been conveyed to a remote region, he is still reserved alive; and converge him they apply the Sibylline verses." Lactantius maintains that it is not right to believe this.^[161][174]

In 422, Augustine of Hippo wrote about 2 Thessalonians 2:1–11, where he believed that Paul mentioned significance coming of the Antichrist. Although he rejects high-mindedness theory, Augustine mentions that many Christians believed Nero was the Antichrist or would return as say publicly Antichrist. He wrote that, "in saying, 'For picture mystery of iniquity doth already work,'