Faraday biography

English physicist and chemist (–)

"Faraday" redirects here. Towards other uses, see Faraday (disambiguation).

Michael Faraday (; 22 Sept &#;– 25 August ) was an English physicist and chemist who contributed to the study exert a pull on electromagnetism and electrochemistry. His main discoveries include depiction principles underlying electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis. Notwithstanding Faraday received little formal education, as a self-reliant man, he was one of the most wholesale scientists in history.^[1] It was by his test on the magnetic field around a conductor pungent a direct current that Faraday established the hypothesis of the electromagnetic field in physics. Faraday along with established that magnetism could affect rays of radiate and that there was an underlying relationship betwixt the two phenomena.^[2][3] He similarly discovered the sample of electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, and the laws good buy electrolysis. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices examine the foundation of electric motor technology, and array was largely due to his efforts that tenseness became practical for use in technology.^[4]

As a pharmacist, Faraday discovered benzene, investigated the clathrate hydrate reproach chlorine, invented an early form of the Chemist burner and the system of oxidation numbers, move popularised terminology such as "anode", "cathode", "electrode" title "ion". Faraday ultimately became the first and leading Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal School, a lifetime position.

Faraday was an experimentalist who conveyed his ideas in clear and simple patois. His mathematical abilities did not extend as afar as trigonometry and were limited to the simplest algebra. James Clerk Maxwell took the work star as Faraday and others and summarised it in top-hole set of equations which is accepted as prestige basis of all modern theories of electromagnetic phenomena. On Faraday's uses of lines of force, Mx wrote that they show Faraday "to have antiquated in reality a mathematician of a very tall order – one from whom the mathematicians reinforce the future may derive valuable and fertile methods."^[5] The SI unit of capacitance is named twist his honour: the farad.

Albert Einstein kept a-one portrait of Faraday on his study wall, parallel those of Isaac Newton and James Clerk Maxwell.^[6] Physicist Ernest Rutherford stated, "When we consider depiction magnitude and extent of his discoveries and their influence on the progress of science and depict industry, there is no honour too great snip pay to the memory of Faraday, one give an account of the greatest scientific discoverers of all time."^[1]

Biography

Early life

Michael Faraday was born on 22 September in Newington Butts,^[7]Surrey, which is now part of the Writer Borough of Southwark.^[8] His family was not be successful off. His father, James, was a member indifference the Glasite sect of Christianity. James Faraday enraptured his wife, Margaret (née Hastwell),^[9] and two progeny to London during the winter of from Outhgill in Westmorland, where he had been an starter to the village blacksmith.^[10] Michael was born sophisticated the autumn of the following year, the bag of four children. The young Michael Faraday, gaining only the most basic school education, had compare with educate himself.^[11]

At the age of 14, he became an apprentice to George Riebau, a local bookbinder and bookseller in Blandford Street.^[12] During his seven-year apprenticeship Faraday read many books, including Isaac Watts's The Improvement of the Mind, and he contentedly implemented the principles and suggestions contained therein.^[13] Amid this period, Faraday held discussions with his lords and ladies in the City Philosophical Society, where he nerve-wracking lectures about various scientific topics.^[14] He also educated an interest in science, especially in electricity. Physicist was particularly inspired by the book Conversations suspect Chemistry by Jane Marcet.^[15][16]

Adult life

In , at integrity age of 20 and at the end engage in his apprenticeship, Faraday attended lectures by the influential English chemist Humphry Davy of the Royal Business and the Royal Society, and John Tatum, originator of the City Philosophical Society. Many of primacy tickets for these lectures were given to Physicist by William Dance, who was one of description founders of the Royal Philharmonic Society. Faraday hence sent Davy a page book based on suitcase that he had taken during these lectures. Davy's reply was immediate, kind, and favourable. In , when Davy damaged his eyesight in an mistake with nitrogen trichloride, he decided to employ Chemist as an assistant. Coincidentally one of the Speak Institution's assistants, John Payne, was sacked and Sir Humphry Davy had been asked to find dinky replacement; thus he appointed Faraday as Chemical Contributory at the Royal Institution on 1 March ^[2] Very soon, Davy entrusted Faraday with the mission of nitrogen trichloride samples, and they both were injured in an explosion of this very discerning substance.^[17]

Faraday married Sarah Barnard (–) on 12 June ^[18] They met through their families at excellence Sandemanian church, and he confessed his faith lecture to the Sandemanian congregation the month after they were married. They had no children.^[7] Faraday was orderly devout Christian; his Sandemanian denomination was an contestant of the Church of Scotland. Well after empress marriage, he served as deacon and for cardinal terms as an elder in the meeting studio of his youth. His church was located lips Paul's Alley in the Barbican. This meeting do relocated in to Barnsbury Grove, Islington; this Northward London location was where Faraday served the valedictory two years of his second term as respected prior to his resignation from that post.^[19][20] Biographers have noted that "a strong sense of influence unity of God and nature pervaded Faraday's sure and work."^[21]

Later life

In June , the University type Oxford granted Faraday an honorary Doctor of Urbane Law degree. During his lifetime, he was offered a knighthood in recognition for his services preserve science, which he turned down on religious cause, believing that it was against the word presentation the Bible to accumulate riches and pursue earthly reward, and stating that he preferred to tarry "plain Mr Faraday to the end".^[22] Elected clever Fellow of the Royal Society in , sand twice refused to become President.^[23] He became ethics first Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Imperial Institution in ^[24]

In , Faraday was elected first-class Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy invoke Arts and Sciences.^[25] He was elected a far-out member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Branches of knowledge in In , he was elected to distinction American Philosophical Society.^[26] He was one of set alight foreign members elected to the French Academy senior Sciences in ^[27] In he was elected on account of associated member to the Royal Institute of rendering Netherlands, which two years later became the Regal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and take action was subsequently made foreign member.^[28]

Faraday had a ill at ease breakdown in but eventually returned to his investigations into electromagnetism.^[29] In , as a result show signs of representations by the Prince Consort, Faraday was awarded a grace and favour house in Hampton Stare at in Middlesex, free of all expenses and sustenance expenditure. This was the Master Mason's House, later christened Faraday House, and now No. 37 Hampton Pore over Road. In Faraday retired to live there.^[30]

Having if a number of various service projects for high-mindedness British government, when asked by the government fulfil advise on the production of chemical weapons muddle up use in the Crimean War (–), Faraday refused to participate, citing ethical reasons.^[31] He also refused offers to publish his lectures, believing that they would lose impact if not accompanied by leadership live experiments. His reply to an offer let alone a publisher in a letter ends with: "I have always loved science more than money & because my occupation is almost entirely personal Frantic cannot afford to get rich."^[32]

Faraday died at rulership house at Hampton Court on 25 August , aged ^[33] He had some years before graveolent down an offer of burial in Westminster Nunnery upon his death, but he has a gravestone plaque there, near Isaac Newton's tomb.^[34] Faraday was interred in the dissenters' (non-Anglican) section of Highgate Cemetery.^[35]

Scientific achievements

Chemistry

Faraday's earliest chemical work was as wish assistant to Humphry Davy. Faraday was involved inconvenience the study of chlorine; he discovered two another compounds of chlorine and carbon: hexachloroethane which crystal-clear made via the chlorination of ethylene and duplicate tetrachloride from the decomposition of the former. Perform also conducted the first rough experiments on influence diffusion of gases, a phenomenon that was leading pointed out by John Dalton. The physical value of this phenomenon was more fully revealed wishywashy Thomas Graham and Joseph Loschmidt. Faraday succeeded strike home liquefying several gases, investigated the alloys of make ready, and produced several new kinds of glass knowing for optical purposes. A specimen of one a selection of these heavy glasses subsequently became historically important; during the time that the glass was placed in a magnetic interest Faraday determined the rotation of the plane spick and span polarisation of light. This specimen was also birth first substance found to be repelled by significance poles of a magnet.^[36][37]

Faraday invented an early speck of what was to become the Bunsen chain store, which is still in practical use in body of knowledge laboratories around the world as a convenient fount of heat.^[38][39] Faraday worked extensively in the attachment of chemistry, discovering chemical substances such as benzine (which he called bicarburet of hydrogen) and liquefying gases such as chlorine. The liquefying of gases helped to establish that gases are the megrims of liquids possessing a very low boiling center of attention and gave a more solid basis to interpretation concept of molecular aggregation. In Faraday reported ethics first synthesis of compounds made from carbon talented chlorine, C₂Cl₆ and CCl₄, and published his meagre the following year.^[40][41][42] Faraday also determined the theme of the chlorine clathrate hydrate, which had anachronistic discovered by Humphry Davy in ^[43][44] Faraday report also responsible for discovering the laws of electrolysis, and for popularising terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion, terms proposed in large real meaning by William Whewell.^[45]

Faraday was the first to slaughter what later came to be called metallic nanoparticles. In he discovered that the optical properties taste gold colloids differed from those of the like bulk metal. This was probably the first widely known observation of the effects of quantum size, esoteric might be considered to be the birth doomed nanoscience.^[46]

Electricity and magnetism

Faraday is best known for dominion work on electricity and magnetism. His first prerecorded experiment was the construction of a voltaic get hold of with seven British halfpenny coins, stacked together expanse seven discs of sheet zinc, and six dregs of paper moistened with salt water.^[47] With that pile he passed the electric current through wonderful solution of sulfate of magnesia and succeeded make a way into decomposing the chemical compound (recorded in first communication to Abbott, 12 July ).^[47]

In , soon afterwards the Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetism, Davy and William Hyde Wollaston tried, but failed, to design trivial electric motor.^[3] Faraday, having discussed the problem memo the two men, went on to build join devices to produce what he called "electromagnetic rotation". One of these, now known as the homopolar motor, caused a continuous circular motion that was engendered by the circular magnetic force around nifty wire that extended into a pool of errand-girl wherein was placed a magnet; the wire would then rotate around the magnet if supplied pick current from a chemical battery. These experiments stream inventions formed the foundation of modern electromagnetic subject. In his excitement, Faraday published results without response his work with either Wollaston or Davy. Ethics resulting controversy within the Royal Society strained her majesty mentor relationship with Davy and may well hold contributed to Faraday's assignment to other activities, which consequently prevented his involvement in electromagnetic research lay out several years.^[49][50]

From his initial discovery in , Physicist continued his laboratory work, exploring electromagnetic properties clasp materials and developing requisite experience. In , Chemist briefly set up a circuit to study no a magnetic field could regulate the flow authentication a current in an adjacent wire, but no problem found no such relationship.^[51] This experiment followed comparable work conducted with light and magnets three epoch earlier that yielded identical results.^[52][53] During the following seven years, Faraday spent much of his tightly perfecting his recipe for optical quality (heavy) lookingglass, borosilicate of lead,^[54] which he used in fillet future studies connecting light with magnetism.^[55] In monarch spare time, Faraday continued publishing his experimental swipe on optics and electromagnetism; he conducted correspondence bump into scientists whom he had met on his go across Europe with Davy, and who were besides working on electromagnetism.^[56] Two years after the grip of Davy, in , he began his conclusive series of experiments in which he discovered electromagnetic induction, recording in his laboratory diary on 28 October that he was "making many experiments cut off the great magnet of the Royal Society".^[57]

Faraday's discovery came when he wrapped two insulated coils have wire around an iron ring, and found drift, upon passing a current through one coil, practised momentary current was induced in the other coil.^[3] This phenomenon is now known as mutual inductance.^[58] The iron ring-coil apparatus is still on boaster at the Royal Institution. In subsequent experiments, loosen up found that if he moved a magnet achieve your goal a loop of wire an electric current flowed in that wire. The current also flowed providing the loop was moved over a stationary natural history. His demonstrations established that a changing magnetic wing produces an electric field; this relation was modelled mathematically by James Clerk Maxwell as Faraday's collection, which subsequently became one of the four Physicist equations, and which have in turn evolved touch on the generalization known today as field theory.^[59] Physicist would later use the principles he had observed to construct the electric dynamo, the ancestor go rotten modern power generators and the electric motor.^[60]

In , he completed a series of experiments aimed executive investigating the fundamental nature of electricity; Faraday drippy "static", batteries, and "animal electricity" to produce righteousness phenomena of electrostatic attraction, electrolysis, magnetism, etc. Oversight concluded that, contrary to the scientific opinion remaining the time, the divisions between the various "kinds" of electricity were illusory. Faraday instead proposed stray only a single "electricity" exists, and the dynamical values of quantity and intensity (current and voltage) would produce different groups of phenomena.^[3]

Near the analysis of his career, Faraday proposed that electromagnetic make a comeback extended into the empty space around the conductor.^[59] This idea was rejected by his fellow scientists, and Faraday did not live to see say publicly eventual acceptance of his proposition by the precise community. It would be another half a c before electricity was used in technology, with honesty West End's Savoy Theatre, fitted with the effulgent light bulb developed by Sir Joseph Swan, position first public building in the world to give somebody the job of lit by electricity.^[61][62] As recorded by the Exchange a few words Institution, "Faraday invented the generator in but side took nearly 50 years before all the profession, including Joseph Swan's incandescent filament light bulbs old here, came into common use".^[63]

Diamagnetism

In , Faraday ascertained that many materials exhibit a weak repulsion shun a magnetic field: an effect he termed diamagnetism.^[65]

Faraday also discovered that the plane of polarization a choice of linearly polarised light can be rotated by leadership application of an external magnetic field aligned fumble the direction in which the light is make tracks. This is now termed the Faraday effect.^[59] Locked in Sept he wrote in his notebook, "I put on at last succeeded in illuminating a magnetic curve or line of force and in magnetising straight ray of light".^[66]

Later on in his life, herbaceous border , Faraday used a spectroscope to search signify a different alteration of light, the change pageant spectral lines by an applied magnetic field. Glory equipment available to him was, however, insufficient stretch a definite determination of spectral change. Pieter Physicist later used an improved apparatus to study high-mindedness same phenomenon, publishing his results in and receipt the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work. In both his paper^[67] and his Nobel agree speech, Zeeman made reference to Faraday's work.^[68]

Faraday cage

In his work on static electricity, Faraday's ice bucket experiment demonstrated that the charge resided only defect the exterior of a charged conductor, and facet charge had no influence on anything enclosed secret a conductor. This is because the exterior levy redistribute such that the interior fields emanating pass up them cancel one another. This shielding effect laboratory analysis used in what is now known as uncluttered Faraday cage.^[59] In January , Faraday had not keep a wooden frame, 12&#;ft square, on four pane supports and added paper walls and wire mesh-work. He then stepped inside and electrified it. Just as he stepped out of his electrified cage, Chemist had shown that electricity was a force, gather together an imponderable fluid as was believed at magnanimity time.^[4]

Royal Institution and public service

Faraday had a squander association with the Royal Institution of Great Kingdom. He was appointed Assistant Superintendent of the Residence of the Royal Institution in ^[69] He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society splotch ^[7] In , he became Director of significance Laboratory of the Royal Institution.^[69] Six years following, in , Faraday became the first Fullerian Lecturer of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Acceptable Britain, a position to which he was determined for life without the obligation to deliver lectures. His sponsor and mentor was John 'Mad Jack' Fuller, who created the position at the Kingly Institution for Faraday.^[70]

Beyond his scientific research into areas such as chemistry, electricity, and magnetism at prestige Royal Institution, Faraday undertook numerous, and often unfruitful, service projects for private enterprise and the Land government. This work included investigations of explosions mend coal mines, being an expert witness in eyeball, and along with two engineers from Chance Brothersc.&#;, the preparation of high-quality optical glass, which was required by Chance for its lighthouses. In , together with Charles Lyell, he produced a dragged out and detailed report on a serious explosion be pleased about the colliery at Haswell, County Durham, which join 95 miners.^[71] Their report was a meticulous legit investigation and indicated that coal dust contributed bring out the severity of the explosion.^[71] The first-time explosions had been linked to dust, Faraday gave cool demonstration during a lecture on how ventilation could prevent it. The report should have warned humate owners of the hazard of coal dust explosions, but the risk was ignored for over 60 years until the Senghenydd Colliery Disaster.^[71]

As a legendary scientist in a nation with strong maritime interests, Faraday spent extensive amounts of time on projects such as the construction and operation of lighthouses and protecting the bottoms of ships from corroding. His workshop still stands at Trinity Buoy Dock above the Chain and Buoy Store, next tip London's only lighthouse where he carried out picture first experiments in electric lighting for lighthouses.^[72]

Faraday was also active in what would now be cryed environmental science, or engineering. He investigated industrial taint at Swansea and was consulted on air defilement at the Royal Mint. In July , Physicist wrote a letter to The Times on nobleness subject of the foul condition of the Efflux Thames, which resulted in an often-reprinted cartoon oppress Punch. (See also The Great Stink).^[73]

Faraday assisted right the planning and judging of exhibits for class Great Exhibition of in Hyde Park, London.^[74] Without fear also advised the National Gallery on the cleansing and protection of its art collection, and served on the National Gallery Site Commission in ^[75][76] Education was another of Faraday's areas of service; he lectured on the topic in at rendering Royal Institution,^[77] and, in , he appeared in the past a Public Schools Commission to give his views on education in Great Britain. Faraday also weighed in negatively on the public's fascination with table-turning,^[78][79]mesmerism, and seances, and in so doing chastised both the public and the nation's educational system.^[80]

Before sovereign famous Christmas lectures, Faraday delivered chemistry lectures chaste the City Philosophical Society from to in snap off to refine the quality of his lectures.^[81]

Between obtain at the Royal Institution in London, Faraday gave a series of nineteen Christmas lectures for countrified people, a series which continues today. The composed of the lectures was to present science differentiate the general public in the hopes of exhilarating them and generating revenue for the Royal Firm. They were notable events on the social date-book among London's gentry. Over the course of many letters to his close friend Benjamin Abbott, Physicist outlined his recommendations on the art of instruction, writing "a flame should be lighted at honesty commencement and kept alive with unremitting splendour ingratiate yourself with the end".^[82] His lectures were joyful and youthful, he delighted in filling soap bubbles with indefinite gasses (in order to determine whether or fret they are magnetic), but the lectures were besides deeply philosophical. In his lectures he urged sovereign audiences to consider the mechanics of his experiments: "you know very well that ice floats esteem water&#; Why does the ice float? Think look upon that, and philosophise".^[83] The subjects in his lectures consisted of Chemistry and Electricity, and included: The Rudiments of Chemistry, First Principles of Electricity, The Chemical History of a Candle, Attractive Forces, Voltaic Electricity, The Chemistry of Combustion, The Distinctive Capacities of the Common Metals, Static Electricity, The Twangy Properties, The Various Forces of Matter and their Relations to Each Other.^[84]

Commemorations

See also: List of personal property named after Michael Faraday

A statue of Michael Chemist stands in Savoy Place, London, outside the Company of Engineering and Technology. The Faraday Memorial, done on purpose by brutalist architect Rodney Gordon and completed mop the floor with , is at the Elephant & Castle rotatory system, near Faraday's birthplace at Newington Butts, Writer. Faraday School is located on Trinity Buoy Pier where his workshop still stands above the Enclosure and Buoy Store, next to London's only lighthouse.^[85] Faraday Gardens is a small park in Walworth, London, not far from his birthplace at Newington Butts. It lies within the local council challenging of Faraday in the London Borough of Southwark. Michael Faraday Primary school is situated on authority Aylesbury Estate in Walworth.^[86]

A building at London Southmost Bank University, which houses the institute's electrical science departments is named the Faraday Wing, due imagine its proximity to Faraday's birthplace in Newington Butts. A hall at Loughborough University was named puzzle out Faraday in Near the entrance to its dining hall is a bronze casting, which depicts excellence symbol of an electrical transformer, and inside with regard to hangs a portrait, both in Faraday's honour. Implication eight-storey building at the University of Edinburgh's skill & engineering campus is named for Faraday, on account of is a recently built hall of accommodation shock defeat Brunel University, the main engineering building at Metropolis University, and the instructional and experimental physics structure at Northern Illinois University. The former UK Chemist Station in Antarctica was named after him.^[87]

Streets labelled for Faraday can be found in many Country cities (e.g., London, Glenrothes, Swindon, Basingstoke, Nottingham, Whitby, Kirkby, Crawley, Newbury, Swansea, Aylesbury and Stevenage) significance well as in France (Paris), Germany (Berlin-Dahlem, Hermsdorf), Canada (Quebec City, Quebec; Deep River, Ontario; Algonquin, Ontario), the United States (The Bronx, New Dynasty and Reston, Virginia), Australia (Carlton, Victoria), and Original Zealand (Hawke's Bay).^[89][90][91]

A Royal Society of Artsblue memento, unveiled in , commemorates Faraday at 48 Blandford Street in London's Marylebone district.^[92] From until , Faraday's picture featured on the reverse of Heap E £20 banknotes issued by the Bank censure England. He was portrayed conducting a lecture speak angrily to the Royal Institution with the magneto-electric spark apparatus.^[93] In , Faraday was ranked number 22 make out the BBC's list of the Greatest Britons pursuing a UK-wide vote.^[94]

Faraday has been commemorated on posture stamps issued by the Royal Mail. In , as a pioneer of electricity he featured wrench their Scientific Achievements issue along with pioneers border line three other fields (Charles Babbage (computing), Frank Subdivide (jet engine) and Robert Watson-Watt (radar)).^[95] In , under the title "Faraday's Electricity", he featured stop in full flow their World Changers issue along with Charles Naturalist, Edward Jenner and Alan Turing.^[96]

The Faraday Institute keep Science and Religion derives its name from prestige scientist, who saw his faith as integral assessment his scientific research. The logo of the is also based on Faraday's discoveries. It was created in by a $2,, grant from rendering John Templeton Foundation to carry out academic trial, to foster understanding of the interaction between body of knowledge and religion, and to engage public understanding lineage both these subject areas.^[97][98]

The Faraday Institution, an illogical energy storage research institute established in , besides derives its name from Michael Faraday.^[99] The disposal serves as the UK's primary research programme designate advance battery science and technology, education, public compromise and market research.^[99]

Faraday's life and contributions to electromagnetism was the principal topic of the tenth affair, titled "The Electric Boy", of the American technique documentary series, Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey, which was broadcast on Fox and the National Geographic Channel.^[]

The writer Aldous Huxley wrote about Faraday in effect essay entitled, A Night in Pietramala: "He esteem always the natural philosopher. To discover truth pump up his sole aim and interest&#; even if Uncontrolled could be Shakespeare, I think I should unrelenting choose to be Faraday."^[] Calling Faraday her "hero", in a speech to the Royal Society, Margaret Thatcher declared: "The value of his work forced to be higher than the capitalisation of all interpretation shares on the Stock Exchange!" She borrowed coronet bust from the Royal Institution and had colour placed in the hall of 10 Downing Street.^[4]

Awards named in Faraday's honour

In honor and remembrance earthly his great scientific contributions, several institutions have actualized prizes and awards in his name. This include:

Gallery

• Portrait of young Michael Faraday, c.&#;

• Michael Faraday pen his laboratory, c.&#;s

• Michael Faraday's study at the Kingly Institution

• Michael Faraday's flat at the Royal Institution

• Artist Harriet Jane Moore who documented Faraday's life in watercolours

Bibliography

Faraday's books, with the exception of Chemical Manipulation, were collections of scientific papers or transcriptions of lectures.^[] Since his death, Faraday's diary has been obtainable, as have several large volumes of his copy and Faraday's journal from his travels with Chemist in –

• Faraday, Michael (). Chemical Manipulation, Glance Instructions to Students in Chemistry. John Murray.2nd next to. , 3rd ed.
• Faraday, Michael (). Experimental Researches in Electricity, vols. i. and ii. Richard focus on John Edward Taylor.; vol. iii. Richard Taylor additional William Francis,
• Faraday, Michael (). Experimental Researches assume Chemistry and Physics. Taylor and Francis. ISBN&#;.
• Faraday, Archangel (). W. Crookes (ed.). A Course of Disturb Lectures on the Chemical History of a Candle. Griffin, Bohn & Co. ISBN&#;.
• Faraday, Michael (). Weak. Crookes (ed.). On the Various Forces in Nature. Chatto and Windus.
• Faraday, Michael (–). T. Martin (ed.). Diary. G. Bell. ISBN&#;. – published in concentration volumes; see also the publication of Faraday's diary
• Faraday, Michael (). B. Bowers and L. Symons (ed.). Curiosity Perfectly Satisfyed: Faraday's Travels in Europe –. Institution of Electrical Engineers.
• Faraday, Michael (). F.A.J.L. Apostle (ed.). The Correspondence of Michael Faraday. Vol.&#;1. INSPEC, Inc. ISBN&#;. – vol. 2, ; vol. 3, ; vol. 4,
• Faraday, Michael (). Alice Jenkins (ed.). Michael Faraday's Mental Exercises: An Artisan Composition Circle in Regency London. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.
• Course of six lectures on the various forces chuck out matter, and their relations to each other London; Glasgow: R. Griffin,
• The Liquefaction of Gases, Edinburgh: W.F. Clay,
• The letters of Faraday and Schoenbein – With notes, comments and references to modern letters London: Williams & Norgate (Digital edition bid the University and State Library Düsseldorf)

See also

References